Geographical Discoveries

Great geographical discoveries – a popular term geographical discoveries made at the turn of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, in particular: circumnavigation Cape of Good Hope by Diaz (1488), the discovery of America by Columbus (1492), and then the conquest, trip [[Vasco da Gama | to India (1498) and the first trip around the world, Magellan (1519-1522). These events triggered a further voyages of discovery and contributed to a significant widening of the geographical horizon of Europeans. Expedition of Christopher Columbus Rulers of Spain, they realized that they begin to lose the distance to Portugal, which definitely lead the quantity organized expeditions. But so far Spain was busy fighting with the Arabs, who defended her at the last stronghold – Grenada. When in 1492 the Saracens were expelled from the Iberian peninsula, Ferdinand and Isabella agreed to finance the expedition, which presented them with a description of the Genoese Christopher Columbus. The traveler asked the first king of Portugal. Presented a plan aimed at shipping on the west and in accordance with the map of Ptolemy, after crossing the Atlantic to reach Asia. However, not met with favor. With the same plan, asked the king of Spain. Under the agreement, written by Columbus from the royal couple: Columbus was appointed for life admiral, governor and viceroy of the newly discovered lands. 1 / 10 of income from the newly discovered land was to belong to Columbus, the rest of the royal treasury. In return, Columbus promised to cover 1 / 8 the cost of the expedition. The rest covered the royal couple. And the expedition of Christopher Columbus (1492-1493) The expedition set sail on August 3, 1492 from the port of Palos de la Frontera. The first stage of the journey were previously discovered the Canary Islands, then Columbus sailed along the 28 parallel to the west. The crew, consisting of about 90 people after 3 weeks of shipping began to rebel, when it turned out that you can not see land. 29. 09. Columbus in his diary wrote that it was rebellion. 11. 10. Columbus erected ultimatum – if within 24 hours will not see the land has ordered outflow. Fortunately for Kolumba12 October after three months of the expedition, when the entire crew of the ship was already tired and actually threatened Columbus's death, Juan Rodriguez Bermejo saw the crow's nest land. The expedition landed on the island probably Watling (called Guanahani by the Indians), a small island group of the Bahamas. In the natives pointed gold ornaments. Interviewed about their origin indicated the direction to the south. Judging from this that lies to the north of the mainland, Columbus chose a new course to the southwest. Indians called the island's inhabitants. October 28 Columbus arrived in Cuba, then on December 6 found another island of Haiti / Hispaniola and the smaller islands, which he called Isabella and Fernandina in honor of the royal couple. Then there was a crisis – in late January and February turned out that the admiral ship sank and the Santa Maria, Columbus ordered the return to their homeland. In March 1493, two ships returned to Palos. Second expedition of Christopher Columbus (1493 – 1494) September 25, 1493, the expedition set off another. This time the expedition better equipped, numbering more ships (about 15, the number of crew: about 1750). The expedition lasted 1. 5 years. This time, Columbus chose a more southern route, and thus reached land in the area of the Lesser Antilles. Subsequently discovered the island of Dominica, Marie – Galante, Guadeloupe, Antigua and Puerto Rico. Nov. 22 Columbus arrived in Haiti again, to see that the people left there, no one survived. How domyslono, all perished in the struggle with the natives. In the longer journey Columbus sailed along the southern coast of Cuba and discovered Jamaica. However, the absolute gggaaaTymczasem proceeding to Columbus alienated a large part of his crew. Discouraged many hardships and lack of legendary riches separated themselves from the trip and started searching on your own. Others returned to Spain, choking many complaints on Columbus. Influenced by the enemies of Columbus postulated to take privileges granted to him earlier, and in his place appointed royal governor of the newly discovered lands. In this situation, Columbus on March 19 headed back to Spain, where he arrived June 11. At the court managed to clear himself of the charges against him, obtained a confirmation of earlier privileges and the promise of organizing the next, the third expedition. Third expedition of Christopher Columbus (1498 – 1500) Another, already the third expedition took place in 1498 on her organization had to wait so much, because it failed to fully restore confidence in what it darzono. In fact, only during this expedition, Christopher Columbus saw the mainland. It was South America, but that's when fate turned away from Columbus. Columbus autocratic favor of his people, in particular his son – Diego. She came to the undoubted frustration at the lack of major economic successes and difficulties expeditions in relations with the natives. Just as during the second expedition, news arrived of the problems to the crown. Meanwhile, it was decided to act more decisively. In June 1500 sent to the west of Francis Bobadilla, which were endowed with wide powers of attorney. After reviewing the situation in Haiti, he ordered arrest of Columbus and his son, and shackled to send them to Spain. At the Columbus site again managed to clear themselves of charges and return to the graces of the royal pair. The result was a fourth and last expedition of Columbus to America. IV expedition of Christopher Columbus (1502 -1504) May 9, 1502 flotilla of four ships and 150 crew company Columbus went west again. This time the situation was urgent. In the meantime, Vasco da Gama discovered the route to India around the African continent. Columbus urgently needed was a success proving that the road to the west is shorter, more comfortable and safer. Columbus's intention was to find the transition to water, which eventually took him to lead India. He expected to go to the west of Cuba. There was headed in his expedition. Flowing in this direction reached the coasts of Honduras and the Mosquito Coast on the east coast of Nicaragua. There, the natives learned about the â€Å"rich kingdoms† (Mayan civilization, and perhaps even the Inca Empire) and the â€Å"great sea† (Pacific Ocean), which lies further west, but despite strenuous attempts failed to find a water passage to the reservoir. Having lost two of the four ships, resigned to return to Cuba, then to Jamaica. There he was forced to settle the remaining ships aground. Materials originating in the damaged ships were used for the construction of fortified settlements. One of the companions of Columbus, Diego Mendez, the Indian boats set off for help survivors. But it was only after months wandering managed to get to Haiti, where he brought help. In the meantime Columbus was seriously ill and in such condition were transported him to Spain, where he arrived November 25, 1504. Summary of accomplishments of Christopher Columbus Given what Columbus has to say that the end of his life was tragic. After returning from the expedition moved to fourth place Vailadolid seriously ill, and having almost the status of a beggar. He died on May 20, 1506 was actually not knowing that he discovered America. He was convinced that came to Japan, to China, to India, and the mainland, which he saw during the third expedition he considered the biblical paradise. Meanwhile, the Portuguese and Spaniards, and realized that Columbus did not reach India, and discovered a new land. Another version of the last years of his life of Columbus presents a mysterious manuscript of Puri, according to which Columbus had died many years later and still take one-fifth trip to the West Indies. The authenticity of this source is given, however, questioned by most scholars Ferdinand Magellan (port. Fernao de Magalhaes, Spanish. Fernando de Magallanes, born. In the spring of 1480, as amended. April 27, 1521) – Portuguese sailor in the service of the Spanish maritime explorer and adventurer. He called the Pacific Ocean (Pacific). September 20, 1519 set out from Portugal by the western, or by the Atlantic Ocean to the Spice Islands in the Malay Archipelago. The expedition, which sailed under his command as the first circumnavigated the Earth. He died on April 27 killed by the inhabitants of the island of Mactan in the Philippine Archipelago Christopher Columbus (born 25 August or 31 October 1451 in Genoa (Italy) – died. May 20, 1506 in Valladolid, cat Cristofor Colom, owned by Cristoforo Colombo, Spanish. Cristobal Colon) – European sailor and navigator (probably Catalan by recent discoveries), captain of the expedition, which flowed on the three ships Santa Maria, Nina and Pinta under the flag of Castile in search of the western sea route to India, as the first in the history of geographical discoveries of modern beat tropical Atlantic Ocean and 12 October 1492 reached the West Indies (Antilles ) off the coast of America – the continent at that time unknown in Europe. Was appointed as admiral and made the first governor of the Spanish colonies in Central America, the organizer and master of four transatlantic discovery expeditions from Spain to America. Diaz used the discovery of Vasco da Gama. In 1497 another expedition was launched. Da Gama sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and headed towards Asia. Docked in the port of Calicut in India. Returned to the country in 1499 along with a large cargo of gold and spices. The country welcomed him enthusiastically. Maritime route to India became a reality. No wonder that the success of this expedition had a big impact naorganizowanie next. Henry the Navigator Portugal at least because of its location lent itself perfectly to the base for ocean expeditions. Despite the advantages of geographical location odegralaby probably not such a role in the great geographical discoveries, if not enthusiasm and dedication to Prince Henry (1394-1460) Henry called Sailor. After the conquest by the Portuguese in 1415 On the Moroccan coast Ceutry Henry was convinced that further expansion in Africa will bring great benefits. Counting on profits from trading gold, slaves, ivory, and pepper. With his support along the western coast of Cape Sangres organized a sort of database connection with the research center, where he collected all the geographical and navigational data and worked on the construction of sailing ships. For seventy years the Portuguese sailing ships were moving farther and farther south along the African coast, reaching successive headlands: Nun, Bojador, Blanco and 1445 Green Cape. During these expeditions the Portuguese discovered and colonized offshore islands and archipelagos – Madeira, the Canary Islands, Cape Verde. They assumed a fortified factories on the coast. And as it turned out that gold is less in Africa than they hoped, they took a more profitable procedere, the slave trade. EXPEDITIONS: WYPRARY PORTUGUESE: -Henry the Navigator – Azores, Canary Islands, Cape Verde, crossed the equator in 1471r. , -Bartholomew Diaz – 1488r . – Busz Cape (Cape of Good Hope), Vasco da Gamma– the road to India along the coast of Africa (1497-1498), SPANISH EXPEDITION: Christopher Columbus – the discovery of America (12. 10. 1942r), Hispaniola (Haiti), Cuba and others (1492), Lesser Antilles, the Coast of Central America and South America (1493-1503); -Amerigo Vespucci – realized that America is a new continent (from his name, name); -Ferdinand Magellan – (1519-1522) circumnavigation of the Earth (Magellan Strait, Pacific Ocean, Philippines, Borneo) – died in 1521r. In the Philippines, an expedition Sebastian del Cano finished; – Francis Drake (English) – and the circumnavigation of South America (the world); CIVILIZATIONS AND SOUTH CENTRAL AMERICA: Maya: V w. n. e. – The beginnings of civilization in the areas of Central America (Yucatan plw. ) with its capital in Majapan; Economy: -Wypaleniskowa (incandescent), -Grown: beans, wheat, -Craft, art, the pyramid; -Religion based on the sun-god cults, rites – human sacrifice; -Totalitarian power, absolute, hereditary; -The principal adviser to the ruler – the high priest; -Did not know the wheel or arc; -Calendar (365 days divided into 18 months); -Developed astronomy; -Know the time (to understand this concept) decimal system; Were aware of the layout of digits; The Aztecs: The thirteenth century – the beginnings of civilization in the areas of Mexico today, with its capital in Tenochtitlan; -Developed economy; -Grown: tomatoes, cotton, cocoa; -Money: cocoa beans or golden sand; -Tools more advanced than the Mayans; -Construction: the temples; -Ruler chosen from among the administrative units; -Bloody rituals, wor ship of the sun: 1489 – 250 thousand were killed. people as victims of ritual, such as skinned, pulling beating hearts; -Took over the Mayan calendar; Incas: Fifteenth century origins of civilization in the areas of Peru; -Cult of the sun and moon; -A highly developed economy, -Machu Picchu, -Crafts (ornaments of gold); -Totalitarian state, absolute power; -The interests of the subordinated interests of the state; -Residents could not travel to other parts of the country; Courier-Mail (16 thousand. Km of roads) Knotted-letter; -Developed surgery and herbal medicine, hypnosis; 1519r. – Hispanic – Cortez Aztec civilization znieszczenie; XVI – the destruction of the Incas – Izarro;

Social Performance and Social Influence

Social Performance and Social Influence Introduction Social performance is the study of how the presence of others affects behavior. At times, the mere presence of others can have a facilitating or motivating effect, improving performance. However, when others are present, people may also become hindered or less motivated. This class will explore how one's perception of others determines one's response. Hetherington, Anderson, Norton, and Newson (2003) explored how eating behavior is influenced when eating alone, with strangers, or with friends.Would you predict that eating with others has a facilitating effect, increasing food intake, or the opposite effect, decreasing the amount of food eaten? Research on social influence, which refers to how the attitudes and opinions of others influence one's attitudes and opinions, is one of the greatest contributions of social psychological research in understanding human behavior. This class focuses on two different types of social influence, one that serves to maintain group norms (social control: conformity and obedience) and the other that aims to change group norms (social change by minority influence and innovation).Social psychologist, Dr. Robert Cialdini has researched basic principles that govern how one person may influence another. You will read about these six principles in his 2002 article â€Å"The Science and Practice of Persuasion. † Social Performance Aristotle first called humans social animals. People tend to gather, play, and work in groups. Groups fulfill a variety of functions such as satisfying the need to belong, providing support and intimacy, and assisting in accomplishing tasks that individuals could not accomplish alone, etc.In Chapter 13 of the textbook, groups will be defined as two or more people working together on a task in which the outcome is quantifiable. This discussion will focus on two major areas that have been researched since the end of the 19th century: social facilitation and social loafing. Social Facilitation At first glance, these terms seem to be opposing behaviors: social facilitation refers to the fact that people work harder in groups, whereas social loafing describes their tendency reduce their efforts when in groups.The difference, it appears, is how people view the individuals in their groups–whether they perceive those in the group as being with them us or against them. If group members are against them, they perceive them as competitors, evaluators, or sources of comparison, which is likely to increase or facilitate their efforts. If they are with them, sharing in the demands of the task and evaluation, they are likely to â€Å"loaf† or reduce our efforts. These findings appear counterintuitive.Research on social facilitation began with Triplett (1989) who observed that cyclists pedaled faster, or performed better, when others were present than when performing alone. He argued that the other biker was a stimulus, arousing a competitive instinct in the cyclist. He tested his theory by asking children to wind fishing reels either alone or beside other children. The majority of the children turned the wheel faster when working alongside another child than when reeling alone. Allport (1924) termed this effect social facilitation.Still, it seemed that many disagreed about whether the presence of others increased or decreased performance on tasks. Zajonc (1965) renewed interest in social facilitation, and suggested that the presence of others enhanced a dominant response–which is the most probable response on a given task. If the task is simple and well-learned, the dominant response will be facilitated. For example, if you were a skilled concert pianist, performing in front of others would increase your proficiency on the task; you would play beautifully.Since you are not skilled at this art, being observed by others would no doubt cause anxiety and would result in quite the opposite effect, inhibit ing your performance. Zajonc was suggesting that the presence of others increases drive. Others were still arguing that it was the evaluation or the competition associated with others being present that produced the drive. Whether it was mere presence or evaluation apprehension that increased the drive, the drive theory remained the dominant thought of the time.Alternative approaches to social-facilitation effects fall into three classes: The first was the continued thought that the presence of others increases drive by evaluation apprehension. The second thought suggested that the situation places demands on the individual to behave in a particular way; individuals are engaged in self-presentation and self-awareness. The third idea argued that the presence of others affects focus and attention to the task, meaning that the task becomes cognitive. Hence, the controversy over whether it is the mere presence of others or evaluation that causes social facilitation is unresolved.Social Loafing Social facilitation research demonstrates that the presence of others sometimes enhances performance, yet at times reduces it. But, how does working with others affect motivation? Many would argue that groups should energize and motivate. The tendency for individuals to work less hard on a collective task than on an individual task is called social loafing. For example, those group projects at work or school where a few individuals did the majority of the work–social loafing.Research in this area has been conducted in a way that makes individuals believe that they are either working alone or working with others–then measures efforts toward the task. For example, Ringelmann (Kravitz & Martin, 1986) had volunteers pull on a rope as hard as they could in groups of varying sizes. Their efforts decreased as group sizes increased. This was explained in two ways: their motivation decreased as groups size increased or maybe the larger groups were not able to coordinate their efforts efficiently. Researchers sought to tease apart these two factors, focusing on motivation.You can imagine that it was difficult to devise methods that lead participants to believe they were either working alone (when they were not) or with others (when they were working alone), which lends to the difficulty of studying social loafing. However, over 100 studies (Steiner, 1972; Griffith, Fichman, & Moreland, 1989; Jackson & Williams, 1985; Henningsen et al. , 2000) have tested the effects of groups on motivation, and social loafing has been replicated in most of these studies. Other theories have attempted to explain social loafing.Social impact theory states that when a group is working together, the expectation is that the effort should be diffused across all participants, resulting in diminished effort. Arousal reduction postulates that the presence of others should increase drive only when they are observers and reduce our efforts when they are coworkers. Evaluation potential suggests that social loafing occurs because individual efforts are so difficult to identify during a collective task; one can easily hide in the crowd or may feel they will not be acknowledged for their hard work.Dispensability of effort argues that individuals may feel their efforts are unnecessary or dispensable. The group simply does not need them. An integrative theory: the collective effort model states that individuals will work hard on a task only to the degree to which they believe their efforts will be instrumental in leading to outcomes they value, personally. Hence, the value they place on the task (and their efforts) depends on their personal beliefs, task meaningfulness, favorable interactions with the group, the nature of the rewards, and the extent to which their future goals are impacted by the task.Social loafing can be moderated, or reduced, when individuals' efforts can be identified or evaluated, when individuals are working on a task they deem as impor tant or of personal relevance, or when individuals are working with cohesive groups or close friends. Individual differences or characteristics also influence who engages in social loafing less because they value collective outcomes. For example, a need for affiliation, a hard work ethic, or high self-monitoring can influence effort. It should be clear that the mere presence of others is arousing.It appears that if others are competitors or evaluators they facilitate motivation to work harder. If individuals see others as a part of themselves, they can hide behind them or their efforts can get lost in the efforts of others. Further research in this area can help us determine how our view of others affects our motivation and performance. Social Influence Processes of Control and Change Social influence is one of the primary research areas in social psychology and refers to the ways in which opinions and attitudes influence the opinions and attitudes of others.Two types of social infl uence can be identified in groups: influence aimed at maintaining group norms (social control) or changing group norms (social change). The most common form of social control is conformity, where an individual complies with or accepts the group's views. Since the influence is typically within a context of a group of people influencing an individual, it is referred to as majority influence. Another type of social control is obedience, where individuals obey an authority figure, often against their will.For group norms to change, a small subset of the group must resist the majority view, which is termed minority influence. If minorities never resisted, group opinions would persist, fashions would never change, innovations would not come about, etc. It must be clear that the term majority refers to the larger group of people who hold the normative view and has power over others. Minority groups tend to be small, hold nonnormative positions, and wield very little power.This study textbo ok is concerned with two influence processes: processes that ensure that others adhere to the group's position (social control; conformity and obedience) or processes that aim to change the group's position (social change: innovation and active minorities). Social influence has studied how individuals conform to the majority, often by giving an obvious erroneous response to a question. According to Festinger (1950, 1954), this occurs because there are social pressures for groups to reach consensus, especially when there is a group goal.Individuals seek social approval and seek others to verify their opinions. Deutsch and Gerard (1955) distinguish between normative social influence (conforming to expectations of others) and informational social influence (accepting information from the group as reality). Another view is that people conform over concerns for positive self-evaluations, to have good relationships with others, and to better understand a situation by reducing uncertainty. Social influence also addresses why people comply with acts that clearly cause harm to another.The study of obedience is intimately tied to one social psychologist–Stanley Milgram (1963). His post-WWII research aimed to understand why people willingly engaged in the atrocities perpetrated by the Nazis. People probably preferred to believe these were evil, disturbed men who were intrinsically evil? However, many of them claimed they were not responsible for their behavior. After all, they were simply following orders. In Milgram's (1963) classic study, he led participants (who were assigned to be â€Å"teachers†) to believe they were administering harmful shocks to the â€Å"learners† each time they made an error on a task.The experimenter (the authority figure) demanded they increase the level of shock for each incorrect response. As shocks increased, the receiver (the learner, who was out of the sight of the teacher) responded with distressed reactions. Howeve r, the teacher was encouraged, even demanded, to continue the experiment, even though he believed the learner was experiencing extreme distress. The question was, to what extent normal people would obey the instructions of the authority figure and administer harmful levels of shock to harm another individual.Milgram's results showed that a full 65% of all participants administered every level of shock, surpassing levels believed to do fatal harm to subjects. Milgram's findings have been replicated with consistent results. Why did they obey? Milgram offered the following explanations: (a) they had entered into a contract with the experimenter and did not wish to spoil the experiment; (b) they were absorbed in the experiment and lost sight of the implications of their actions; (c) the participants are acting for the experimenter; they may be pushing the buttons, but they are not responsible, the experimenter is.Notice these are all situational explanations; participants were put into a powerful role relationship with the experimenter. However, when the experimenter was not visible, or another participant played the role of the experimenter, obedience rates decreased, but did not fall to zero, indicating the role relationship did not fully account for their obedience. Milgram's research remains some of the most intriguing and influential in social psychology. Minority InfluenceMoscovici's (1976) book Social Influence and Social Change, he argues that minorities can create conflict by offering a different perspective, thereby challenging the dominant or majority view. Moscovici claims that people trying to avoid conflict may dismiss the minority position, and possibly denigrate it. However, when the minority demonstrates commitment to their position, the majority may consider the minority view as a viable alternative. He called this the minority's behavioral style–meaning the way the message is organized and communicated.By standing up to the majority, the minority demonstrates that it is certain, confident, committed, and not easily persuaded. Researchers have compared majority and minority influence. Conversion theory is the dominant perspective and argues that all forms of influence, whether minority or majority, create conflict that individuals are motivated to reduce. However, people employ different processes depending on whether the conflict is the result of majority influence or minority influence. Comparison process suggests that people focus attention on fitting in, or complying with what others say.Their goal is to identify with the group and comply with the majority position, often times without examining the majority's arguments in detail. Social comparison can drive majority influence, but cannot motivate minority influence, according to Moscovici (1976), because people desire to disassociate themselves with undesirable groups. Because minority groups tend to be distinctive, they stand out, and this encourages a validati on process where some examine the judgments in order to confirm or validate them–to see what it is the minority saw or to understand the minority's view.This process can lead to increased message processing which results in an attitude change on an indirect, latent, or private level. Convergent-divergent theory is proposed by Nemeth (1986) and simply states that people expect to share the same attitude as the majority and to differ from the minority (the false-consensus heuristic). Stress is the result of realizing that the majority has a different perspective than oneself, especially if one is in the physical presence of the majority. Stress narrows one's attention and majority influence, and then leads to convergent thinking.Minorities, on the other hand, do not cause high levels of stress, since they hold different views, which allows for less restricted focus of attention and leads to a greater consideration of alternatives that may not have been considered without the in fluence of the minority view. This results in creative and original solutions. Other theories that integrate minority and majority influence include mathematical models, objective-consensus models, conflict-elaboration theory, context/comparison model, and self-categorization theory.More contemporary models include social-cognitive responses with an emphasis on information-processing such as the elaboration likelihood model and the heuristic systematic model we discussed in an earlier chapter. New research continues to develop. Conclusion This module reviewed social psychological research that has made great contributions to the understanding of human behavior. Early research (e. g. , Triplett, 1898; Zajonc, 1965) led to the beginning of the relatively new field of social psychology.Research investigating social performance–whether performance is improved (social facilitation) or hindered (social loafing) by the presence of others became widely studied as researchers inquired about under what circumstances and what variables determined our response. Supplementary reading by Hetherington (2006) examined the effects of the presence of others on eating behavior. Milgram's (1963) research on obedience may be some of the most cited research in social psychology. Cialdini's contributions to the study of social influence (and social psychology in general) have been significant, as well.References Allport , F. (1924). The influence of the group upon association and thought. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3, 159-182. Cialdini, R. B. , & Goldstein, N. J. (2002). The science and practice of persuasion. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly,43(2), 40-50. Deutsch, M. & Gerard, H. B. (1955). A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51, 629-636 Festinger, L. (1950). Informal social communication. Psychological Review, 57, 271-282.Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 337-360. Griffith, T. L. , Fichman, M. , & Moreland, R. L. (1989). Social loafing and social facilitation: An empirical test of the cognitive-motivational model of performance. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 10, 253-271. Henningsen, D. D. , Cruz, M. G. & Miller, M. L. (2000). Role of social loafing in predeliberation decision making. Group dynamics: Theory, research and practice, 4, 168-175. Hetherington, M. M. , Anderson, A. S. , Norton, G.N. M. , & Newson, L. (2006). Situational effects on meal intake: A comparison of eating alone with eating with others. Physiology & Behavior, 88, 498-505. Jackson, J. M. , & Williams, K. D. (1985). Social loafing on difficult tasks: Working collectively can improve performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 937-942. Kravitz, D. A. & Martin, B. (1986). Ringelmann rediscovered: The original article. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 936-941. Milgram, S. (1963 ). Behavioral study of obedience.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, 371-378. Moscovici, S. (1976). Social influence and social change. London, England: Academic Press. Nemeth, C. (1986). Differential contributions of majority and minority influence. Psychological Review, 93, 23-32. Steiner, I. D. (1972). Group processes and productivity. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Triplett, H. C. (1989). The dynamogenic factors in peacemaking and competition. American Journal of Psychology, 9, 507-533. Zajonc, R. (1965). Social facilitation. Science, 149, 269-274.

Prominent Leader

A Prominent National Leader Of My Country As an initiator of sweeping reforms, Dr Mahathir bin Mohamad stands head and shoulders above his predecessors. The winds of change brought about by this tough leader have touched every aspect of Malaysian life, economic, social, political and cultural. Born in Alor Star on 20th December 1925, Dr Mahathir received is early education in Maktab Sultan Abdul Hamid. After completing his secondary education, he took up medicine at the King Edward VII College of Medicine in the University of Singapore and graduated with an MBBS degree in medicine.Even in his student days, Dr Mahathir was an active UMNO member. In 1964, he became the Member of Parliament for Alor Star and this marked his entry into the political arena. He held a member of portfolios before becoming the Prime Minister. Among them were his appointment as the Minister of Education and as the Minister of Trade and Industry. After a short period as the Deputy Prime Minister, he finally to ok over the reins of the government on 16th July 1981. During his contract as the premier, the country has undergone a complete transformation.Upon taking office as Prime Minister, he restored the whole political machinery to make it more dynamic and effective. The most notable achievement in the political arena is the corporatization of government agencies to cut the government’s operation costs and to generate more revenue. Among the many policies he has introduced is the Look East Policy, where Malaysian were urged to emulate the work ethics of the success oriented Japanese and Koreans. A realistic leader, Dr Mahathir imagined that Malaysia could attain the status of a developed nation only if there was a switch from the agriculture-based economy to an industrial one.In 1991, he announced his most ambitious vision, the Vision 2020 as a roadmap to a fully developed country. The Mahathir era is marked with numerous notable achievements. The introduction of the countryâ€℠¢s first national car, the Proton Saga followed by the Perodua Kancil; the building of a new airport in Sepang, reputedly the largest in the Asia Pacific region; the building of the Formula One racing circuit and the building of the Petronas Twin Towers the tallest buildings in the world from 1998 to 2004 until surpassed by Taipei 101, but remain the tallest twin buildings in the world. are al feather in his cap of success. In 1999, the government moved to the new administrative capital, Putrajaya. In the international arena too, Dr Mahathir has left his mark. Open and outspoken by nature, his strong attack on the imcompetence and inaction of world bodies have won him both international praise as well as criticism. Tun Dr. Mahathir stepped down as Prime Minister on 31 October, 2003. Dr. Mahathir has done the nation proud and there is no doubt that he will go down in the annals of Malaysian history as the Father of Modernization.

Adult Program Design Part II Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Adult Program Design Part II - Essay Example But the systems in every business also need to be audited in terms of their suitability and credibility. Before a business can be audited, it is wise to construct an audit design that will aid in the process of audit and not only look at the existing flow of transactions and their recording and reporting on financial statements and other records, but also recommend improvements and needed changes that will serve in terms of clarity, veracity and meet the laws and principles of the land. In this assignment we are going to design tests of controls, substantive tests of transactions, and analytical procedures for the acquisition and payment of the business called Apollo Shoes. The Acquisitions and Payments Process at Apollo Shoes It Is evident that we can only design an audit procedure or process around the existing flow of transactions and their processes at Apollo Shoes. Only in the case of massive fraud or circumstances warranting a detailed investigation would the complete revamping of existing procedures be understandable. According to the present Accounting and Control Procedure Manual as indicated in the Case Study details, all cash disbursements /payments are made by check, signed by the Treasurer, including those for petty cash transactions. Checks are always made out to a defined payee, never to cash. Blank checks remain in the custody of the Accounts Payable Department and the treasurer is not allowed to sign blank checks. Additionally, we see that checks are recorded in the cash disbursements journal using the date of the check, and in the general journal using the month of the check as a factor for recording these entries. Internal Control Procedures While it appears from the case study material especially the accounting and control procedure manual that some degree of internal control has been maintained over cash disbursements/ payments process, there are a few comments to be made. One factor is the separation of ownership and control. Since the tre asurer himself signs most of the checks, he can very well make them out to a fictitious vendor and then pocket the money himself after opening up an account in that name. The case of Comptronix as reported in Chapter 19 of the text indicates that collusion between unscrupulous individuals even in top management is not unheard of (Arens et al., 2006). Enron is another case in point. Secondly, the recording of transactions as per date made out on the check leaves some room for error and can result in reconciliation difficulties with the bank statement, as this is a common practice with nearly every business. It is better if a simple chronological order is followed date-wise in recording every transaction of whatever nature so that there is no ambiguity on this account. Concerning the purchase of fixed assets, the approval for the same is usually made in advance by top management. This ensures that they have approved the purchase. Budgetary allocation of funds is also evident, and all excesses of 10% or above to be signed off by the Treasurer. Payments once again are to be made by check. The automatic treatment of fixed assets of value of $5,000 and above as capital expenditure is questionable, and should be looked at on a case to case basis. Assessing Risk Factors Connected with the Acquisitions and Payment Process The risk factor involved due to concentration of the signing of all checks by the Treasurer has been indicated above. It is better that a combination of two signatures be required on every disbursed check. One can be the Head of Department or VP of the section of the business to which the check pertains, and the other would be the Treasurer. The

Triumph of Christianity Speech or Presentation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Triumph of Christianity - Speech or Presentation Example Against this backdrop, it is now possible to present a better picture of Christianity as a religion and its triumphant rise in a manner acceptable to a majority of historians. The Impact of Christianity Tracing the history of the triumph of Christianity means a relook at the manner in which it threw off the restraints of the Roman Empire to become the dominant religion of the Roman Empire, which brought about a marked and fundamental change in the Greco-Roman values that existed at that time. Some historians attribute the rise of the Christianity as a factor that led to the fall of the great Roman Empire. This argument is buttressed by the fact that the polytheistic official religion followed in all of Rome that included Mars the God of War and Jupiter Optimus Maximus to a very large extent were the buttress on which the power of the Roman Emperors rested. The emergence of Christianity as the religion of Rome removed this buttress, reducing the power of the Emperors of Rome, leading to its downfall (Duker & Spielvogel, 2007). The Beginning of Christianity There are many mysteries and enigmas that shroud the birth and life of the founder of Christianity Jesus Christ. The finding of the Dead Sea Scrolls has added another chapter to these mysteries and enigmas in the form of the Essenes. The Jews has become a divided house prior to Judea becoming a part of the Roman Empire. This lack of unity led to Judea becoming a part of the Roman Empire. The Roman rule only added to the further divisions among the Jews and the rise of Jewish sects. The Essenes were one such sect that came into being in the first century before Christ. Similarities and beliefs and practices of early Christians are seen that include baptism and leading to speculation that the Essenes provide the missing link between the development of religious ideas between Judaism and Christianity. Leaving these speculations aside, Christianity did have a humble beginning and the teaching of its founder Jesus Christ was so profound that it not just attracted the Jewish people, but spread beyond Judea to other parts of the world (Strauss, 1984). The Rise and Triumph of Christianity During his life time it was the miracles that he performed that made the most noise and attracted followers to him. Subsequent to his death, the miracles remained as embers, but it was then that his teachings and mystical powers emerged to become the focus of attraction for conversion to Christianity (Stalker, 2003). To the Jewish people the attraction lay in the teachings of Jesus Christ brought a fresh breathe against the dominance of the High Priests, the Scribes and the Pharisees in Jewish religious thought. The Roman conquest of Greece and the Mediterranean region had brought the Roman people in contact with mystery religions. Romans were beginning to adopt ideas and practices outside of the Roman religion and mystery religions were an attractive proposition. The miracles that Jesus Christ performed, the m ysterious that surrounded his death and resurrection as spread by his disciples were a strong attraction for the Romans (Brodd, 2003). Christianity offered more than just mystery for the Romans. The founder was not a myth and the religious thought

'The Secret Garden' by Frances Hodgson Burnett, it is frequently said, Essay

'The Secret Garden' by Frances Hodgson Burnett, it is frequently said, shows us the triumph of patriarchy. To what extent is this statement valid - Essay Example Mary is sent to live temporarily at the English clergyman, Crawford's house until she was to travel to her uncle in England. It seems Mary is passed from one patriarch to another in a patriarchal world. Basil Crawford acts like a young patriarch by singing and leading the other children to sing a rhyme to make fun of Mary and bully her. Mary goes to live at her uncle Archibald's Misselthwaite Manor, where the staff relate stories about Archibald's patriarchy. Mrs. Medlock, Archibald's housekeeper, tells Mary that she sacrificed attending her niece's wedding because she wanted to keep her job and 'do at once what Mr. Archibald Craven told her to do. She never dared ask a question.' (Burnett 1994). Mary is introduced to the patriarchal world of Archibald. Martha, the maid, reveals that the secret garden used to be the lovers' paradise that only Mr. and Mrs. Craven were allowed to access.. The secret garden is an enclosed space that symbolises the woman's space that is sharply defined away from the man's space. (Knauss 1987). Archibald appreciated the honor of sharing in it. He understood that it was his wife's sanctuary in her male dominated world of patriarchy. He allowed it when she was alive. After her death, Archibald felt helpless and needed to regain some control. The secret garden is opened with a symbolic key . This key denotes power and understanding. When Mrs. Craven died, Archibald does not understand his grief. He hides the key because he desires to exert his power through his patriarchy, which keeps his staff subdued and powerless. (Russell 2002). Martha's mother, Mrs. Sowerby, understands the need for a lonely female to do some gardening. She predicts correctly that Mary might like to do some gardening of her own. The garden is viewed as a type of female utopia where the female has her own private domain to rule. (Qian Ma 2004). Mary may not understand the psychology behind her action and none of this explanation is necessary in this work as it belongs to 'children's literature. Burnett uses an older or adult character (Martha) to explain the difficult concepts in the story in a simple way. Martha helps Mary to settle into Misselthwaite Manor by making her as comfortable as possible in Archibald's patriarchal household. Even the male gardener, Ben Weatherstaff, exercised his own ai r of patriarchy when he deliberately avoids her. Although Mary has a higher social status than himself, he is not a servant to 'be merely commanded by them (members of his employer's family) to do things'. (Burnett 1994). However, Ben is subject to his employer, Archibald's patriarchy, which rules over his own.Archibald finally consents to see Mary only after Mrs. Susan Sowerby talks to him about it. This is evidence that Archibald is a flexible patriarch who listens to advice. He is kind to Mary and readily gives her permission to do and have what she likes. Archibald does not seem to be a triumphant patriarch who gives orders to his charge. Mary observes that 'he is really a nice man, only his face is so miserable and his forehead is all drawn together.' Mary loves her secret garden. The secret garden with its isolation is a sign of rebellion against the surroundings of patriarchy. (Abalos 2002). She is under the control of her uncle, who exerts secondary control over her by his orders to his servants. Mary complained that she has nothing to do and nothing

Will be provide Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 3

Will be provide - Essay Example The steady-state gain and the time constant were determined by performing two trials using variant voltage inputs in the step input part of the experiment. The time constants for the first and the second trial were 0.196s and 0.176s respectively. Through dividing the change in the output voltage by the input voltage, the steady-state gain was determined. The relationship or connection between the natural frequency and the damping ratio could be seen in the position control section of the experiment. There was an increase in the natural frequency and a decrease in the damping ratio as the error feedback increased. When a comparison of the observed data was made to the theoretically obtained values, the difference was approximately double. When the error feedback was more that 90%, the system seemed unstable. Upon the introduction of tacho feedback, while keeping the error feedback constant, a significant increase in the damping ratio was observed. The system was damped and indicated a faster response with the tacho feedback. The experiment proved to be so useful as it enabled the observation of characteristics and relationships of the servo-motor control though the theoretical values differed slightly with the experimental values Calculations involving the steady-state parameters were done in the initial experiment. The tachogenerator and motor speed gains were determined by plotting graphs of tachogenerator voltage vs. motor speed and motor speed vs. input voltage. Tachogenerator gain was found to be 1.6579 V/(rad/s) with the motor speed recording a 12.564 (rad/s)/ V gain. An analysis of graph 4.4.1.2 and Graph 4.4.1.1 depicted a constant linear relationship. With increasing motor speed, the voltage of the tachogenerator increased. An increase in the input voltage also led to an increase in the motor speed. The graphs 4.4.1.3 and graph 4.4.1.4 showed the plot of feedback pot and position pot against the servo angle. The plot of feedback pot